What you may not have read about the scary decline in Grauer's Gorilla numbers

Cover of the WCS and FFI Report

Over a week ago, a report from Wildlife Conservation Society and Fauna and Flora International hit the press about Grauer's gorillas (Gorilla beringei graueri).  Grauer's gorillas, previously known as eastern lowland gorillas, are one of four subspecies of gorillas. Consuming fruits and vegetation, Grauer's gorillas are the largest subspecies. They are listed as endangered and are found only in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

They made the headlines, and not just on the science news sources, because the latest data shows their numbers have declined dramatically. Over the past twenty years, Grauer's gorilla numbers have declined by an astonishing 77%, with only 2, 585 animals estimated alive today. Their range has been reduced by 84-93%. If you saw this on the news, you probably also saw that civil unrest and other human pressures are the reasons behind the sudden decline. This is hardly surprising.

What you may have missed are some of the more nuanced details behind these numbers, details that can be found in the report itself, which also covers chimpanzees in the same area. In their report titled, "Status of Grauer's Gorilla and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and Current Distribution and Abundance," we learn that increases in agriculture and the availability and use of shot guns caused habitat loss and extinctions of local populations in the 60s and 70s. Surveys done in the 90s also suggested species decline due to expanding human populations and hunting. The late 90s and early 2000s saw these threats exacerbated when refugees from civil war in Rwanda, internally displaced people, and armed groups in the DRC put further pressure on DRC forests and wildlife. This influx of people needed fuel for firewood, land for agriculture, timber, and also hunted wildlife and mined.

The main threats to Grauer's gorillas are hunting for bushmeat and habitat loss due to the spread of agriculture. Hunting practices are related to artisanal mining though. These mines are found adjacent to or even in protected areas, are illegal, and are controlled by armed militias (Kirkby et al., 2015). They allow people an economic opportunity to earn an income quickly and attract people from multiple social classes(Kirkby et al., 2015). Once working at these remote mines, miners rely on bushmeat for food and consume primates and other large mammals(Kirkby et al., 2015). The miners aren't evil people though, as many said they wouldn't hunt bushmeat if alternatives were available and also said they wanted to leave the mining industry.

SMART patrols, reconnaissance surveys, transects, and occupancy surveys were used to determine gorilla decline and show that one of the areas with the highest number of animals, Kahuzi-Biega National Park saw a decline of 87% in gorilla density, and this is with a portion of the Park protected reasonably well. Seven of the eleven sites surveyed through encounter rates show an average decline of 94%. These findings are enough to support raising the IUCN status of Grauer's gorillas to critically endangered.

Occupancy probability model from report. Blue areas
mean high likelihood and red very low likelihood of gorillas

Behind these alarming numbers, a story emerges of people pushed beyond their limits and forced to use the forests available in order to survive. Civil war, changes in government, and general civil unrest gives the DRC its tumultuous historic timeline, the effects of which not only impact people but also the flora and fauna of the region. Some may find it easy to forget, but humans and nature are intricately linked.

You may think you have no connection to this story other than one as an innocent bystander, but the resources mined from the DRC are part of an industry many of us play into. Most of the mines are for cassiterite, gold, coltan, and wolframite. The first is an important source of tin, the second you may be wearing now, coltan is used in electronics such as our cell phones, and the last is an important source of tungsten. Given that mining is one of the main reasons Grauer's gorillas are threatened, chances are many of us are connected to this problem, as uncomfortable as that may make us feel.

Links of potential interest
IUCN Page for Grauer's Gorillas
IUCN Categories and Their Criteria
BBC's Country Profile of the DRC

Works cited:

Kirkby, A., Spira, C., Bahati, B., Twendilonge, A., Kujirakwinja, D., Plumptre, A., ... & Nishuli, R. (2015). Investigating artisanal mining and bushmeat around protected areas. Unpublished report to USAID and Arcus Foundation.

Plumptre, A.J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., Williamson, E.A., Hall, J.S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015). Status of Grauer’s gorilla and chimpanzees in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and current distribution and abundance. Unpublished report to Arcus Foundation, USAID and US Fish and Wildlife Service.

How hurricane severity affects extinction probabilities for howler monkeys

Howler on Barro Colorado Is. Photo: Vince Smith

Howler monkeys are known for their long, bellowing calls that can be heard in the forests of Central and South America. There are five subspecies, the taxonomic rank below species, of howler monkeys. Alouatta palliata mexicana is a critically endangered subspecies found in parts of Mexico and Guatemala. Ameca y Juárez and colleagues had the idea to examine how hurricanes affect population numbers of this arboreal, New World primate. Using data from 1988 to 2002, the authors modeled how hurricane intensity affects extinction likelihood of local populations of this New World primate. They also wanted to know which human disturbance, hunting or habitat loss, had a greater impact when combined with different intensities of hurricanes.

Previous studies have examined how other species of howler monkeys have been impacted by hurricanes on a short-term basis, but this study is the first to look at the effects over a long period of time. The area in which A. p. mexicana inhabits is experiencing more hurricanes lately (Manson et al., 2009; Portilla-Ochoa et al., 2006), thus this study is of increasing relevance.

Studying A. p. mexicana living on Agaltepec Island in Mexico, which is isolated and predator-free (including human predators),  Ameca y Juárez and colleagues estimated predator, hunting, and habitat loss pressures from other A. p. mexicana populations in the area. They used population viability analysis (PVA) to determine the impact of different hurricane intensities on howler monkeys' quasi-extinction risk, or the probability of reaching a population size in which additional threats could cause the loss of the entire population.

The lowest degree hurricane disturbance result in a 28% quasi-extinction risk forty years later. Baseline estimates of hurricane intensity result in a 74% risk. Overall, the authors found that hurricanes have the ability to exceed the risk of human impacts. The combination of hurricanes and habitat loss have a substantially faster effect than when hurricanes and hunting are paired together.  It is the decrease in survival of adults that most affects the quasi-extinction rates, with adult males having an especially significant effect on the population.

The authors do point out that recurrent exposure to disturbances, including hurricanes, can be expected to affect the adaptability over time, thus reducing the likelihood the species will go extinct from the disturbance. Thus, the relationship between quasi-extinction risk and hurricane intensity won't be lineal in reality, as populations frequently exposed to hurricanes over time will adapt to lessen or moderate the negative effects.

As more frequent and intense hurricanes are expected in the future, studies such as this one allow us to determine how primate populations might be affected. Future modelling of hurricane intensity and frequency may incorporate other factors likely to affect population numbers, such as inbreeding.

Food for thought:
How might conservation biologists use information from this study to protect A. p. mexicana?
How might this study apply to other species of primates and other animal species in general?

Links of interest:
IUCN's page on A. palliata
How animals survive hurricanes
Why we should expect more extreme weather
Howler monkeys' call


Works cited:
Ameca y Juárez EI, Ellis EA, Rodríguez-Luna E. 2015. Quantifying the severity of hurricanes on extinction probabilities of a primate population: Insights into “Island” extirpations. American Journal of Primatology 77:786-800.

Manson RH, Jardel Pelaez E, Jimenez Espinosa M, et al. 2009. Perturbaciones y desastres naturales: impactos sobre las ecorregiones, la biodiversidad y el bienestar socioeconomico, en: Capital natural de Mexico, vol II: Estado de conservacion y tendecias de cambio. Conabio, Mexico, pp. 131-184. 

Portilla-Ochoa E, Sanchez-Herdandez AI, Hernadez-Meza D. 2006. El impacto de los huracanes en la biodiversidad del estado de Veracruz. In: Inundaciones 2005 en el estado de Veracruz. pp. 101-119. Universidad Vercruzana, Veracruz Mexico. 

Locals knowledgable of ecosystem are more likely to conserve

A study by Sawchuck and colleagues (2015) published in the journal Marine Policy explores how angler understanding of the ecosystem and fishing practices affects their views on conserving Puget Sound rockfish (Sebastes spp.). Multiple species of Puget Sound rockfish were listed under the Endangered Species Act in 2010 (Drake et al., 2010). The current study conducted by Sawchuck and colleagues (2015) found that fisherman with knowledge of the Puget Sound rockfish support conservation efforts, and individual preference on conservation efforts are influenced by where those individuals fish. Clearly, knowledge is power when it comes to conservation.

While this study is specific to conserving rockfish in Puget Sound, something I admittedly know little about, the results are applicable to many conservation biologists. Those who live closely alongside and act as part of the ecosystem are more likely to develop an attachment and appreciation of it. I know the more time I spend surrounded by nature, the more I both understand and love it. As wildlife increasingly comes into contact with humans, studies like this one that examine how people view conservation initiatives are important. They help us better understand what makes people want to conserve certain species.

Yelloweye rockfish, Sebastes ruberrimus

As the authors state in this paper, there are many factors (economic, social, cultural) that influence a person's beliefs, support, and compliance with conservation efforts. This holds true whether we're discussing fish, primates, or wild cats. Sawchuck and colleagues (2015) also state that while the Puget Sound rockfish has been studied previously, "...few have engaged recreational anglers in the recovery process and examined the underlying knowledge and perceptions that may ultimately affect support for recovery measures."

Scientists can declare that we need to protect a certain species and go through all of the hoops and bureaucracy associated with getting that species attention on a national or state level, but if there isn't local support and cooperation for conservation plans, it seems obvious to me that those plans will be less successful. People live alongside these animals and ecosystems and interact with them on a regular basis, something we're beginning to understand and appreciate more as scientists. Granek and colleagues (2008) found that commitment to conservation is higher when recreational fisherman are involved in protecting their fish from external threats to recreational fishing (commercial fishing or habitat destruction), which may simply be a matter of protecting self-interest but maybe not. The more recent study conducted by Sawchuck and colleagues (2015) shows that knowledgeable local stakeholders are more likely to support conservation.

Food for thought:

How do you think local knowledge should influence policy decisions?
When is it appropriate for scientists to include the beliefs and ideologies of locals? When might it not be appropriate or logical?

Sources:
Drake JS, Berntson EA, Cope JM, Gustafson RG, Holmes EE, Levin PS, et al. Status of five species of rockfish in Puget Sound, Washington: Bocaccio (Sebastes paucispinis), Canary Rockfish (Sebastes pinniger), Yelloweye Rockfish (Sebastes ruberrimus), Greenstriped Rockfish (Sebastes elongatus) and Redstripe Rockfish (Sebastes proriger). U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Technical Memorandum; 2010. NMFS-NWFSC-108, 234 p.
E.F. Granek, E.M.P. Madin, M.A. Brown, W. Figueira, D.S. Cameron, Z. Hogan, et al. Engaging recreational fishers in management and conservation: global case studies Conserv Biol, 22 (5) (2008), pp. 1125–1134

Sawchuk, Jennifer Heibult, et al. "Using stakeholder engagement to inform endangered species management and improve conservation." Marine Policy 54 (2015): 98-107.

Studying the ecology of disease and primates

We often think of habitat loss, hunting, and perhaps even the pet trade as serious threats to primate conservation. Disease, on the other hand, is commonly forgotten. Yet, increasingly fragmented forests create more opportunities for humans and wildlife to come into contact and potentially transfer and spread disease. Our close genetic relationship with non-human primates further increases the likelihood of spreading illness through contact, making this a topic worth paying attention to.

Cryptosporidium parvum

A study came out recently in the journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases that should remind all of us not to exclude disease as a potential threat to non-human primate conservation. Parsons et al., 2015 studied chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and baboons (Papio anubis) in Gombe National Park (where Jane Goodall studied chimps) and found that they are exposed to a parasite called Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidium is transmitted through food, water, and zoonotic means (from animals to humans).

Death from infectious disease is the leading cause of mortality for the three chimpanzee communities inhabiting Gombe (Lonsdorf et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2008), thus studying disease ecology should allow us to better conserve the Gombe population. While Papio anubis is not endangered, Pan troglodytes is.

Of the 131 non-human primates tested, 16% were positive for Cryptosporidium compared to 9.6% of livestock and just 4.3% of the 185 humans tested. Baboons and chimpanzees were infected at a similar rate. Three species of Cryptosporidium were detected: C. hominis, C. suis, and C. xiaoi.
 

Bush pig, Photo credit: Derek Keats

Half of the Cryptosporidium documented in the Kasekela community of chimpanzees are of a Cryptosporidium species (C. suis) typically associated with pigs. Surprisingly, C. suis was not detected in any of the humans, baboons, or livestock tested. The authors suggest that the transmission cycle may involve bush pigs, Potaochoerus larvatus, because domesticated pigs are not present in this area due to a mainly Muslim population. The bush pigs are found in the forest the Kasekela chimps inhabit and may serve as a reservoir for the parasite. It seems there are more details to be teased out when understanding the connection between C. suis and humans. Another species of the Cryptosporidium parasite found in this study, C. hominis, is one of two species most commonly found in humans (Chalmers and Katzer, 2013; Insulander et al., 2013). Yet C. hominis was also found in baboons and one of the chimpanzee communities, raising a red flag.

Cryptosporidium has been found in other primate species as well, including mountain gorillas, which were found to have the same species of Cryptosporidium, C. parvum, as found in nearby human populations (Nizeyi et al., 1999; Graczyk et al., 2001). Cryptosporidium has also been reported in red colobus and black and white colobus monkeys (Sayler et al., 2012). The Parsons study thus contributes to a growing body of literature on the prevalence of zoonotic diseases and their transmission. The authors stress the need to further understand the complex connections between primates, their ecology, their contact with humans, and the spread of disease so that we can better understand this relatively unexplored area of primate conservation.

This is an interesting article because Parsons and colleagues tackled a question that is poorly studied. The ecology of how diseases like Cryptosporidium spread and affect our primate relatives is not well understood, but zoonotic diseases make up the majority (60.3%) of emerging diseases worldwide (Jones et al., 2008). This is a timely and interesting paper that is worth reading or at least skimming. You can find the article posted online here. It's free and worth a look!

Links of interest:
Non-human primate biosafety from the University of Minnesota
Studying disease emergence in primates may help us understand emergence in humans
ScienceDaily article on paper


Sources:

Chalmers, Rachel M., and Frank Katzer. "Looking for Cryptosporidium: the application of advances in detection and diagnosis." Trends in parasitology 29.5 (2013): 237-251.

Insulander, M., et al. "Molecular epidemiology and clinical manifestations of human cryptosporidiosis in Sweden." Epidemiology and infection 141.05 (2013): 1009-1020.

Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, et al. (2008) Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 451: 990–993 doi: 10.1038/nature06536
Graczyk TK, DaSilva AJ, Cranfield MR, Nizeyi JB, Kalema G, et al. (2001) Cryptosporidium parvum Genotype 2 infections in free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Parasitology Research 87: 368–370. pmid:11403378 doi: 10.1007/s004360000337 

Lonsdorf EV, Travis D, Pusey AE, Goodall J (2006) Using retrospective health data from the Gombe chimpanzee study to inform future monitoring efforts. American Journal of Primatology 68: 897–908 

Parsons, M. B., et al. "Epidemiology and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium spp." Humans, Wild Primates, and Domesticated Animals in the Greater Gombe Ecosystem, Tanzania. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 9.2 (2015): e0003529.

Nizeyi JB, Mwebe R, Nanteza A, Cranfield MR, Kalema G, et al. (1999) Cryptosporidium sp and Giardia sp infections in mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla beringei) of the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Journal of Parasitology 85: 1084–1088. pmid:10647041 doi: 10.2307/3285672 
Salyer SJ, Gillespie TR, Rwego IB, Chapman CA, Goldberg TL (2012) Epidemiology and Molecular Relationships of Cryptosporidium spp. in People, Primates, and Livestock from Western Uganda. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases 6.(4):e1597. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001597. pmid:22506085

Williams JM, Lonsdorf EV, Wilson ML, Schumacher-Stankey J, Goodall J, et al. (2008) Causes of death in the Kasekela chimpanzees of Gombe National Park, Tanzania. American Journal of Primatology 70: 766–777 doi: 10.1002/ajp.20573

Viewing a primate in a human setting linked to desiring one as a pet

Scenarios like this scare me Photo from Flickr user sofubared

A study was published last week by Leighty et al., 2015 in the journal PLOS ONE that caught my attention for some unfortunate reasons. (PLOS ONE is an open-access journal, if you weren't aware, meaning you can freely access the articles published in it.) Leighty et al., 2015 report that humans are more likely to want a monkey or a lemur as a pet if they see one in a human setting, which makes me want to pull my hair out. 1144 adults at the Lincoln Park Zoo were shown an image that had a primate (capuchin, squirrel monkey, or ring-tailed lemur) in it and was either in a natural or a human setting and included either a human touching the primate or no human at all. Head to ScienceDaily to see some of the images used in this study. The participants were then asked, “Would you consider getting this animal as a pet?” and, “Is this species endangered in the wild?” Now, these are people who willingly chose to visit the zoo, which seems to indicate they have at least some interest in animals. The results, which I summarize below, could potentially be even more disappointing if this were done with a wider population of adults.

If the primate was in contact with a human and in the non-natural setting, an office, respondents were more likely to state primates are desirable as pets (heck no primates aren't good pets, but more on that later). Almost one out of five people questioned would consider having the primate in the photo as a pet. Those wanting the primate as a pet were significantly more likely to believe the animal was not endangered.

Most people thought the primates in the photos looked "nervous" and more people felt the animal looked "happy" when not in the presence of humans. The animal looked "scared" significantly more frequently when there was a human in the photo. In what is the most confusing result reported from where I sit, the primate was most likely to be seen as "dangerous" in a natural setting with no human present. Perhaps people automatically assumed the primates in the office setting were tamed or domesticated? Or that those primates in photos with humans must be well behaved if they're so close to a person and thus, those primates are not dangerous?

Figure 1. The proportion of respondents who described the primate using the trait when presented with a photo of the primate with or without a human present, averaged across the natural and office settings. From Leighty et al., 2015.

Why is this study so important? Well, there is no federal law preventing US residents from keeping primates as pets. The laws vary by state and there are an estimated 15,000 pet primates according to the Humane Society. Clearly it isn't obvious to everyone that keeping a primate like you would a dog or a cat is a horrible idea. You may have watched a video on YouTube of a slow loris being tickled. This video has close to six million views. Six million! That's a lot of people watching the video and thinking how adorable the loris is. I bet some of them are thinking, "Why, what a cute animal. I want one! They're so tiny! How hard could they be to take care of?" (Well, they're venomous for starters...) An ABC news story also posted on YouTube described how slow lorises are endangered because they're so cute and it falls short of having a quarter of a million views. I'm guessing you can see the problem. People love primates, which is great, but loving them and thinking they'd make a good pet is a real issue. Loving them and assuming that because a primate is on YouTube or in a commercial means that species isn't at risk is another issue.

This study also has implications because primates are also used in the entertainment industry. Capuchin monkeys were used in the photos for this study, and you may remember that Ross on the TV show Friends had a capuchin monkey. Capuchins have also been in movies such as The Hangover II and Night at the Museum. Yet, if most people are rating primates in human settings with humans as "nervous," maybe we shouldn't be using them in movies and advertisements? Never mind that it's not humane to take a very intelligent animal away from it's social group (capuchin monkeys live in groups of roughly twenty individuals), but apparently we are made uncomfortable seeing primates outside of their native habitat and interacting with humans.

I wonder what would happen if the same questions from the Lincoln Park Zoo study were asked to people after viewing the slow loris being tickled on YouTube. Are people even thinking about what the primate feels in the video or are they just watching it for the cute factor? Asking people to assign the traits in the figure above might make them think about the larger picture.

The bottom line is we need studies like this so that we can better understand why people believe keeping a primate as a pet is a good idea. The better we understand the psychology, the better able we are to combat these desires and educate people.

Just in case you had any doubts: primates shouldn't be pets. The The International Primatological Society, the American Society of Primatologists, the Humane Society, the American Veterinary Medical Association, and the Jane Goodall Institute all speak out against having primates as pets. Keeping a primate as a pet is selfish. It does nothing to conserve or protect them and in fact causes harm. The primate pet trade can mean these animals are taken from the wild, making them a valuable commodity to be sold rather than an animal to be protected. By keeping them as pets, we do a disservice to these wild animals, removing them from their natural environments to serve no better purpose than a domesticated animal would. The problem is they're not domesticated animals. Keeping primates as pets is anthropocentric, meaning that humans are put first because we are the most important species, and counter intuitive to conservation. Pet owners often claim that their animal lovers but anyone who is keeping a wild animal as a pet is not.

Pet in Slovakia Photo credit: Kurt Bauschardt

Human houses aren't a suitable environment for primates. Thirty percent of privately owned primates in Mexico City suffer injuries caused by falls, burns, and even electrocution (Duarte-Quiroga and Estrada, 2003). They can choke themselves on leashes like the one in the left-hand photo. And you thought leaving your dog home unattended was a bad idea? Our homes are a poor replication of their environment.

Primates are complex socially and quite intelligent. Their needs cannot be met by private owners. Those captured abroad and imported illegally have usually been removed from their mothers at a young age (Duarte-Quiroga and Estrada, 2003; Jones-Engel et al., 2004; Wright, 2005) and suffer emotional consequences. Pet primates often have behavioral problems that arise because they are housed in inadequate social environments (Johnson-Delaney, 1991).

Primates are also dangerous to humans. Some diseases can easily be transferred from primates to humans. Heard of herpes B? It's easily transferred from macaques to humans and isn't detectable through a simple blood test because it travels through the nerves. Symptoms include fever, fatigue, skin lesions and even severe brain damage and death. Monkeys also bite and scratch to the point where some owners resort to removing nails or teeth in an effort to control behavior. Not to mention that if you somehow decide a larger animal such as a chimpanzee would make a lovely companion, you're looking at an animal that is much stronger than you and can rip your face off. Remember Charla Nash?

True animal lovers wouldn't keep a primate as a pet if they were educated on the intelligence, behavior, and ecology of the animal. It does a disservice to primate conservation, makes for an unhappy primate, and often results in a less than satisfied owner. If I haven't convinced you, take a look at the links below. No primate should be forced into being someone's pet.

Links of interest:
Clever Monkeys series on YouTube showing how intelligent primates are
Lincoln Park Zoo's page on why primates make poor pets
National Geographic News on the perils of keeping primates as pets
Jungle Friends Primate Sanctuary message to those who think they want a pet monkey-lots of links within this resource

 References:

Katherine A. Leighty, Annie J. Valuska, Alison P. Grand, Tamara L. Bettinger, Jill D. Mellen, Stephen R. Ross, Paul Boyle, Jacqueline J. Ogden. Impact of Visual Context on Public Perceptions of Non-Human Primate Performers. PLOS ONE, 2015; 10 (2): e0118487 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118487

Duarte-Quiroga, A. and Estrada, A. 2003. Primates as pets in Mexico City: An assessment of the species involved, source of origin, and general aspects of treatment.. American Journal of Primatology, 61: 53–60. 

Johnson-Delaney, C. A. 1991. The pet monkey: Health care and husbandry guidelines.. Journal of Small Exotic Animal Medicine, 1: 32–37. 

Jones-Engel, L., Engel, G. A., Schillaci, M. A., Kyes, K., Froehlich, J.Paputungan, U. 2004. Prevalence of enteric parasites in pet macaques in Sulawesi, Indonesia. American Journal of Primatology, 62: 71–82.

Wright, J. 2005. The primate trade in Indonesia: a rural perspective Manchester, UK: University of Manchester. Unpublished BSc thesis

Connections between Ebola, primates, and the bush meat trade

You may or may not have heard by now that many outbreaks of the deadly Ebola virus originated when people handled or ate animals infected with the virus. For those who need a refresher, a virus is an infective agent that is only able to multiply inside a host's living cells; a virus may cause an infection or disease. Fruit bats, primates, porcupines, and other animals can all carry the Ebola virus. It is only when a person touches or ingests the infected animal's bodily fluids (blood, sweat, mucus, etc) that a person risks infection. So, if you pet a chimpanzee on the head, which you're not crazy enough to do, you wouldn't risk getting sick, even if that chimpanzee was infected with Ebola (unless that chimpanzee had a very sweaty head). If you ate that chimpanzee for dinner though, you would risk contracting Ebola.

You may prefer a steak from a cow, but not everyone does
Photo credit: public domain

And there lies the connection between primates, Ebola, and the bush meat trade. Bush meat, or meat from animals that are not domesticated (bred or trained to need and accept the aid of humans), can be a primary source of protein for those living in Africa. Animals may be hunted by individuals simply to feed their own family, or animals may be hunted for commercial profit. More and more urban areas are consuming bush meat though, and in some instances this meat is even seen as a prized delicacy, a symbol of status and wealth.

As you've probably realized by this point, the bush meat trade can cause several problems. For starters, people may consume animals that are endangered or threatened, lowering their already low numbers. In Africa, the bushmeat trade is the most significant immediate threat to wildlife. While hunting primates and other wildlife to feed your family may or may not be sustainable depending on how the quantity and frequency of hunting, the abundance of the hunted animal, and other variables, the commercial bush meat trade is definitely not sustainable. Infant primates or other young offspring will die if their mother is hunted, leading to more loss. Concerning today's topic though, consuming bush meat leads to the transfer of disease from animals to humans. Thus, the bush meat trade is not only bad for the wildlife in the dinner pot but it's also sometimes quite bad for the humans eating out of the pot.

Bush meat in Ghana

 While the Ebola virus is thought to have originated in fruit bats, primates and other animals can carry it as well. Primates are especially a problem because we're so closely related to them. It's very easy for us to contract diseases from primates compared to animals we're not as closely related to. You may have heard that we share 98% of our DNA with chimpanzees, for example. Well, this close genetic relationship means that many of the diseases we can contract can be contracted by non-human primates too and vice versa. Hepatitis and herpes B can be transmitted from animal to humans, HIV originated in chimpanzees as SIV, and tuberculosis or TB can easily be transmitted from humans to non-human primates.

So in areas where bushmeat is the only source of animal protein available, you may purchase some meat at the local market, take it home and serve it up to your family for a filling dinner, and have unknowingly served an animal that was sick and infected with Ebola. While at first it may seem easy to place the blame on those consuming bushmeat, remember that many have consumed bush meat before without getting sick and may not realize that this is how the disease is transmitted. Those selling bush meat depend on this income to support their families. If people are educated on how Ebola is contacted and how unsafe bush meat is, the demand for it will hopefully decrease, preventing future outbreaks. Providing safe sources of animal protein may be another step towards decreasing the demand for bush meat.



Food for thought: How does this post connect with cultural relativism?

Ex-situ conservation and conservation for the rest of us

Ex-situ conservation means protecting animals outside of their native habitat. This can include moving groups or populations of species to areas outside of their native range where they may have more success. It may mean bringing animals to zoos and trying to breed them in captivity to increase population numbers and/or genetic diversity. One example of ex-situ conservation is work the National Zoological Park is currently attempting to increase the number of cheetahs in captivity. The National Zoological Park are breeding cheetahs housed both at the zoo itself and at The Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute in Virginia and trying to pair genetically valuable individuals. Many zoos have connections with field researchers, institutions, parks, reserves, and other sites across the world. These partnerships allow zoos to not just educate and inspire the local public and visitors but to be involved in projects that directly conserve species and areas through funding, providing training, acting as an area where orphaned wild animals unable to be released back to the wild can live, etc. The next time you visit a zoo, see if they have any programs that you can support or if your admission ticket goes towards any of these programs.

A former pet, this sifaka female now lives at a park

So what can and should you do, as a reader not living in Madagascar or other diverse and threatened areas of the globe?

Thankfully there are many things you may be able to do, and not all of them are terribly expensive or involve huge life changes. While donating to reputable organizations such as the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is definitely an option, so is volunteering at your local zoo or for organizations such as WWF. You may even be able to find a volunteer opportunity that is virtual, so no matter where you live you can make a difference. Check out VolunteerMatch and search for opportunities there.

One step that absolutely anyone can take is simple awareness when it comes to purchasing products. Ordering that beautiful hand carved statue from Africa may seem like a great way to support the country, but where is that wood coming from? Was it sustainably harvested? Or are you accidentally contributing to deforestation? These same rules apply when you're traveling. It may seem like a great idea to purchase that unique souvenir, but you should know what materials it is made of and where those materials came from. It's easy to forget the impact our purchases can have when we support an industry that is clearing say the Amazonian rainforest or other endangered and unique habitats. You should be wary of where your wood comes from, your spices, your coffee, your chocolate, etc. It may involve a lot of research upfront, but eventually you will easily recognize the coffee that you learned comes from clear cutting forest in South America or Africa.

Farming even along the hillside

One of the largest contributors to deforestation of a very biodiverse area is the palm oil industry. Palm oil is planted all across Indonesia and Malaysia in areas that were once forested. Palm oil is in cosmetics, processed foods, shampoo, vegetable oil, popcorn, biofuels, and much, much more. 90% of palm oil comes from Indonesia and Malaysia, where deforestation is out of control and palm oil plantations are the leading cause. Plantations take the place of the habitat of orangutans, Sumatran rhinos,  Sumatran tigers, clouded leopards and other species. Roads cut for logging allow poachers to enter the forest, killing animals for the skins, capturing animals for the pet trade, and killing them for use in traditional medicine. Palm oil is an ingredient in so many items, and it is honestly not the easiest item to cut from your life, but it is well worth it. To learn more, start by checking out these websites, Rainforest Action Network, WWF, and the Orangutan Project.

In Madagascar, deforestation is a huge threat to wildlife. Forests are cleared for rice fields that feed Madagascar's growing population. They are cleared for charcoal production. Forests are also cleared for timber, some of which is highly valuable and is exported to be sold in international markets. In the south, where I worked, the unique and beautiful spiny forest has been replaced by sisal plantations. Sisal is a fiber that is used in baskets, ropes, clothing, etc. Many of these issues are internal, but you can be mindful of where your wood comes from to ensure you're not buying items made from unsustainable, Malagasy timber. If you travel to Madagascar, many of the souvenirs made for tourists are made out of unsustainable items.

If you're a student, consider joining groups at your school or university that focus on educating others about conservation and/or raising money for specific causes. If no such groups exist, start one yourself. I started a division of Jane Goodall's Roots and Shoots program at my undergraduate university. Roots and Shoots is aimed at young people across the world who want to make a difference. I am happy to hear that the division of Roots and Shoots at my university is still alive and trying to make a difference.

Sponsor a cutie like this one

You can also virtually adopt a gorilla or a lemur or many other animals through organizations such as WWF, the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, the Duke Lemur Center, and others. Or you can become a member and donate regularly to a cause. You can also purchase or sponsor your own section of the rainforest. If this seems like too much of a monetary commitment, you can show your support by promoting certain nonprofits and causes through your online activities, such as Facebook pages, Twitter, putting a link to an organization you care about in your email signature, and etc. 

Instead of taking a vacation to Paris or Disney World, take a vacation to Costa Rica and support local national parks and eco friendly tourist hotels. Or better yet, volunteer in some place warm and tropical for a vacation.  Earthwatch is a great organization that pairs volunteers with scientists, so that you can travel by yourself or even with your family and work alongside a researcher, learning and aiding a project. Volunteer vacations are becoming increasingly popular.

Visit somewhere off the beaten path and volunteer while you're at it

The main thing we can all do is educate ourselves on conservation issues and share our knowledge with others. The more people aware of the trouble that unsustainable logging causes or of the damage palm oil production does, the more people available to stop using these products and/or to demand viable alternatives. The more people aware that it's possible to take an exciting vacation where volunteering is a part of the trip, the more people who will try it. There's plenty to learn and this post is only the tip of the iceberg. I recommend spending some time on WWF's site, Googling Madagascar and deforestation issues there, and researching anything else from this post that caught your interest. The more you know, the more potential you have to make a difference. Conservation biology is an inherently depressing field, as being aware of the many hurdles wildlife across the globe encounter means realizing the long road ahead. It may seem like there is not much one person can do, but remember that a journey of a thousand miles starts with a single step.

In-Situ Conservation Part II

But creating wildlife parks creates jobs, doesn’t it? And it allows for tourists who bring money, right? Well, while Berenty certainly does have a large staff of guides, guards for the park, maids for the rooms, cooks and servers for the restaurant, the sisal plantation down the road employs far more people, and I’m sure it produces more cash.

Trash burning by sisal field

Madagascar is currently in the midst of trying to hold elections for a new president after a coup-d’état. The election keeps getting pushed back and people protest and mini-buses (the main mode of transportation for Malagasy people) are occasionally attacked. While the violence currently appears to be limited to Malagasy and tourists have not been targeted (at the time of this post), tourists have reservations about coming here. It takes time and the right conditions for a country to become a tourist destination.

Rice fields in the countryside

Saotra, my assistant here, told me that he saw a boy with a bamboo lemur for a pet. Bamboo lemurs are critically endangered and were only recently discovered. I was immediately sad to hear this, but I know that every bamboo lemur counts when there are so few of them. For this boy, he may see a bunch in his “back yard” and not realize that the few in his “back yard” are all that is left. He does not know that scientists have only begun to study these creatures. He does not know that the species may not survive. And, even if he knows these facts, that bamboo lemurs are critically endangered, this may not have any real meaning to him. Having a pet bamboo lemur may just seem cool!

Sisal plantation where spiny forest once stood

Conservation efforts within a country must be undertaken only with substantial understanding of the life of the local people. Is the government stable? What are the religious beliefs of the local people? Is hunting primates taboo or is it allowed? Why? What are people’s choices in terms of jobs (are there any jobs)? It’s insanity to walk into a community, educate that community on how rare their primates are, and expect them to stop hunting primates if their religion/spirituality tells them hunting primates is a way to appease the gods or if hunting primates and other wildlife is the only way of keeping their bellies full.

Successful in-situ conservation efforts understand the local people they work with. Some examples of efforts that have had great success include Gorilla Doctors, which brings trained veterinarians to treat mountain gorillas harmed in snares or with other illness/ailments.

Critical thinking: You’re a conservation biologist tasked with educating a local community about the unique wildlife that surrounds their village. What must you take into consideration before attempting to your assignment?

Critical thinking: What might the locals be able to teach YOU about the wildlife surrounding their village?

In-Situ Conservation Part I

Conservation Biology is a booming discipline. I don’t know whether to add “fortunately” or “unfortunately” to that previous sentence. As the human population expands, there is less and less room for other creatures and living things on this planet. There’s only so much space to be had. Yet, many people are interested in protecting ecologically valuable areas, improving biodiversity, saving endangered species, etc.

Burning sisal to plant more

Conservation work is varied but there are two main categories of work: in-situ conservation and ex-situ conservation. In-situ means within the country. Examples of in-situ conservation efforts include transferring species to available areas, teaching locals about resource management, and creating protected parks within the country. Ex-situ conservation work examples include breeding species in zoos, informing people of the dangers of buying products made from wood harvested from the Amazon, etc.

This post is dedicated to in-situ conservation, or what I’ve learned here in Madagascar. Madagascar is currently experiencing rapid deforestation (like many places across the world), leaving primates and other flora and fauna with less and less space. So much of the life on this island exists only in Madagascar and it is a hotspot of biodiversity.

Fields for grazing and growing rice outside of Antananarivo

Forests are cleared for multiple reasons. It is cleared for charcoal, it is cleared to make living space for Madagascar’s increasing population, it is cleared for sisal plantations, etc. It may seem easy to judge and ask why a government or a people wouldn’t want to protect these unique species or ask how could someone possibly hunt and eat a primate, but let’s remember cultural relativism. Let’s remember to walk a hundred or a thousand miles in another man’s shoes before judging. I’ve done a lot of walking here, both in the forest and across all of the sand roads (no need to pay for a pedicure to exfoliate my feet, that’s for sure). Half of Madagascar’s population lives on less than one dollar a day. If you’re starving and have little money, of course you are going to buy inexpensive charcoal, which contributes to deforestation, over gasoline which is more expensive but better for the environment. If you can’t feed your family, then problems like preserving biodiversity hardly seem urgent. As for judging a country’s government and their priorities, investing roads so that people can travel to each other usually takes precedence over preserving parks. Lowering the illiteracy rate, creating jobs, and strengthening the economy are all likely more pressing to the general public and therefore the government than conservation.

Which of the following is NOT an example of in-situ conservation efforts:

A.   Foreign researchers hosting an event within the country where local biologists learn to apply for conservation grants to fund their work.

B.   Undergraduate students volunteering in local schools, teaching others about endangered wildlife surrounding their community.

C.   A WWF initiative moving endangered rhinos to protected areas.

D.   A fundraising event for cheetahs to increase money for zoos looking to help this species by increasing genetic diversity.

E.   All of the above are examples of in-situ conservation efforts.

F.    A and D

Answer: D

An unusual type of pest

Berenty is overflowing with lemurs. They’re everywhere. They’re completely habituated (used to humans). I can hear the ring-tailed lemurs and the brown lemurs on my roof, foraging on the tree above. I see brown lemurs multiple times a day drinking water from our well or from large puddles. I’ve only seen a sifaka drinking from the well once so far. The ring-tailed lemurs are very daring: they are in the kitchen, running around outside our houses, even in the dining room on the table. They’ll steal whatever food is left out and they’ve been known to sneak off with whole loaves of bread. They raid our garbage as well and anything that’s left behind in the kitchen. They sit on top of the roof. They sit on the side of the houses. They feast on the cactus that grows near us. They steal the cat’s food. Ring-tailed lemurs are basically like rats here. Being everywhere, they of course poo everywhere, which is not so cute.

Brown lemurs drinking our water

 Ring-tailed lemurs are also up in the tourist section of Berenty. In this part of the reserve, they enjoy stealing leftovers from the tourists’ meals and occasionally being fed by employees, even though this is forbidden. It sounds cute and the tourists happily snap humorous photos of lemurs eating banana peels or jumping on tables, but the reality is different. Feeding or provisioning animals leads to multiple problems. For starters, aggression within the troop will increase, causing physical confrontations and injuries and potentially increased infant mortality. The increase in aggression causes an increase in stress, making animals more vulnerable to disease. Animals become dependent on this outside source of food, causing a serious problem if at any point humans decide to stop provisioning the animals. Once used to a steady source of food, the troops may no longer have a large home range and the ability to expand and search for alternative food sources without entering into another troop’s territory, again leading to increased physical confrontations.

Ring-tailed lemur sauntering into our kitchen

Provisioning cute, little lemurs seems like a good idea at a first glance, but there are drawbacks that should be considered. Provisioning a group of primates is not a decision that should be entered into lightly. Yet there are troops of primates around the world where provisioning takes place and has so for years. These unique, experimental environments allow researchers to ask novel questions that wouldn’t be possible otherwise. For example, we know that provisioned populations generally have higher birthrates. 

Critical thinking: What other questions might be asked if studying a provisioned population of primates or other animals?

The more the merrier

Come on in! To one of our bedrooms...They have no shame.

 

Help yourself!